This entire presentation is copyright © 1968 and © 1999 by William Allin Storrer. Phd. For permission to quote, contact Dr. Storrer at mindalive@storrer.com
Cinewoolf is comprised of over five hundred separate shots1 in its slightly more than two hour's length, and the combination of these shots, in different lengths and of different composition, is a major factor in the articulation of the action of the film. The factors that affect tempo and rhythm alone are numerous:
<Quite apart from music, dialogue, natural sound, colour, all of which may have rhythms of their own, there is the composition of lines, masses, light, and shade, the movement of persons, objects, and light, the movement of forms caused by shot-change or by camera movements, the duration and relationship of shots, the rhythm of narrative, and variations in dramatic intensity.>2
Movement within the shot, and shot duration, are of particular concern in articulation of the action of Cinewoolf. These two factors are somewhat interdependent, and generally,
<A simple image needs less time to grasp than a complex one; a close-up less than a long shot; a fixed frame less than a neutral one; a shot in strong contrast with the previous one less than one similar to it.>3
The content of the shot is a major determinant in the length of the shot, yet the shot length itself produces an effect on the viewer: "short shots communicate excitement, long shots communicate deliberation"4 or, to state the idea more completely:
<The illusion of excitement in short-time shots is enhanced, naturally, by short sections of film, by quick camera movements, by character movement, by short spurts of dialogue and the like.
<Conversely, a sense of calm can be obtained with longer-length shots, with static or slow camera movements, and so on.>5
Attention in this discussion will be directed to those elements that seem to most clearly articulate the rhythms of action in Cinewoolf, duration of, movement within, and composition of shots. Factors such as sharp lighting contrasts, inclusion of music, and other visual and aural aspects of the film will enter the discussion as additional determinants in the establishing of mood, or emotional content.
The formal structure of Cinewoolf is clearly outlined in terms of tempo established by shot duration and movement within the shot. The norm for Cinewoolf shot length is 12.6 seconds per shot, based upon actual count. This is the average tempo, and variance from the norm articulates the several stages of action: though it might be possible to determine the exact amount of variance necessary for a viewer to detect a change in rhythm or tempo, much as a "decibel" is used as a unit of perceptible sound level variance, the individual film establishes its own norm. For purposes of this study it will be useful to consider a fifty per cent variance as a tempo change of significance.
A fifty per cent variance allows the inclusion of the actual range of tempos in Cinewoolf in thirteen half steps somewhat comparable to musical tempo ranges from largo through lento and adagio to a normal andante, then to allegro and presto, in six steps plus intermediate half steps either side of these markings. In Cinewoolf this becomes a progression of shot lengths from the slowest of 214 seconds (which is almost reached twice, once in sequence sixteen, and the last shot of the film) to the fastest of 1.7 seconds (which occurs in sequence twelve). The actual progression, centering around an "andante" of a 12.6 second shot length, runs from slowest to fastest in seconds in the following manner: 214, 143 (largo), 95, 63 (lento), 42, 28 (adagio), 19, 12.6 (andante), 8.4, 5.6 (allegro), 3.7, 2.5 (presto), and 1.7. The range could possibly be extended to the fastest possible tempo of one shot every frame, or the slowest possible rhythm, or one shot encompassing the entire 127 minutes of the film, but these theoretical limits are not approached in Cinewoolf.
The beginnings of the Stagwoolf acts are marked in Cinewoolf by slow, or slowing of, tempo. The opening sequence, which contains but a few lines from the opening page of dialogue, allows thirty-seven seconds per shot on the average, and is set to mood music that suggests a sense of calm, suitably titled "Moon Music and Prelude." This is one of the few segments of Cinewoolf in which the music is clearly audible. Credits appear in this sequence, ending with the music's final cadence. The soft effect is shattered as Martha and George enter their house, in darkness, and switch on the light, which momentarily glares on the screen a full stop overexposed.6
Sequence seven, with an average pace of twelve seconds per shot, peaks at its close one half-step above this, at eight seconds per shot. Sequence eight, underlined by the music of "Colloquy" played most softly, slows this nearly two half-steps to fifteen and a half seconds per shot, and the opening sequence of Act Two, sequence nine, slows this another two half-steps to thirty-nine seconds per shot for the first 14:00 of the sequence. Act Two, like Act One, begins at a slow pace.
The next slow section is the latter part of sequence fourteen, a sequence notable as the equivalent of the only extensive dialogue cut from Stagwoolf. Fourteen pages of dialogue are completely excised at this point, the transition from the roadhouse back to Martha and George's. The first fifty-one seconds of this sequence are fast-paced, eight seconds per shot, capping off the fast pace of the previous sequence. The pace then drops to thirty-three seconds per shot, setting the mood for sequence fifteen, which ends the second act of Stagwoolf. This pace is slowed even further for the act transition, sequence sixteen, which averages one-hundred fifteen seconds per shot around a central shot that runs continuously for 3:24, the longest single shot of Cinewoolf. This sequence overlaps well into the opening moments of the final act of Stagwool£, four pages of dialogue (though most of page 185 is excised). Only into Act Three at sequence seventeen is a normal pace resumed. In each of these scenes, where the pace is slowed, music appears, though at a nearly inaudible level. "Snap" is drowned by the sounds of George and Martha's station wagon, and only when the pace slows does it become at all audible. "Martha" music comes in under George's act-ending speech(l81) leading to the "Prologue-Act II" music, ending on Martha's "you'll be a song-writer yet."(186) The music supports the already established mood; at its nearly inaudlble level it would hardly provide contrasting counterpoint even if intended to do so. Visual material of the montage, and audio material, particularly the music of the soundtrack, operate in unison, not in contrast.
The last slow section is the final sequence of Cinewoolf which consists of three shots. The final shot encompasses the last 3:03 of Cinewoolf, the second longest shot of the film, in its own way a poetic "slowing to a halt" of the night's exhausting action. This final shot is accompanied by the music of "Sunday, Tomorrow, All Day," in its theme, is identical to the "Prelude" music from the beginning of Cinewoolf, and which, returning at this moment, quite audible, adds a further statement of finality to the film.
Thus, the divisions of Stagwoolf have their effect upon the manner in which Cinewoolf is constructed, in their broadest outline. The smaller divisions, of the games people play, appear also, and most often as a speeding up of the pace, until after the recognition and reversal, when games are often ended on a slow tempo.
The first round of games ends upon Martha's "Goddamn you"(19) (for the Stagwoolf "Screw you.") as the guests arrive, with the sequence averaging one shot every twenty seconds. On Martha's "Goddamn you," there is a quick section of four shots picturing each of the principals and their reactions to the "Goddamn you" and each other, at a pace of one shot every two seconds. This clearly punctuates this first round, for it is the fastest pacing up to that point.
The end of round two is not so clearly delineated in terms of tempo. The camera, focused in a one-shot of George, switches from his "and that, as they says is that,"(51) to Martha's reaction "Geeze," then quickly to a third one-shot, of Honey, then one-shots to show reactions to Martha's question to Nick and his answer. The moment is punctuated, but not sharply.
Neither is the end of round three clearly delineated through rhythm. As George declares he is sure of his "chromosomological partnership in the creation of [his] blond-eyed, blue-haired son,"(72) the pace of cutting does increase, but the increase focuses attention on whether or not the child had blue or green eyes, not on the moment of the ending of the game.
The ending of round four is the end of Stagwoolf Act One, with George drowning out Martha by singing "Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?" The average pace of this sequence is equal to that of the film, and only increases a half-step at this momentary peak. Again the emphasis is slight, perhaps "present," but not "decisive."
Martha's one clear game victory is in humiliating the host, as George shouts "THE GAME IS OVER!"(36) Then as Martha reveals that George's novel was actually the truth, George strikes out at Martha, and a series of eleven shots in less than twenty seconds, from a great variety of odd angles, emphasizes the natural, or even unnatural, chaos brought on by the reversal of the previously established "natural order." The full impact of this moment is established visually, though its meaning has yet to be revealed in terms of how the natural order is changed. There is a momentary respite as George gets the guests. Then Martha goes out into the almost hallucinatory atmosphere of the roadhouse parking lot. Sequence thirteen culminates in a series of nineteen consecutive one-shots on the character who is speaking, climaxed by a medium two-shot of the last eight speeches, from George's "You try it and I'll beat you at your own game" through Martha's "Total!"(l58-159) George is seen alone at the beginning of this shot, and Martha moves into it. On her "Total" she moves out of the frame. The pace continues at a fast rate as Martha gets into the station wagon, drives off, picks up Nick and Honey, and then accelerates by George, who stands alone in the parking lot. The pace now drops sharply as George heads home, the camera preceding him to reveal the station wagon, one tail light winking Martha's, not George's, "distress" signal.7
Though Ernest Lehman's screenplay called for shots in the station wagon on its return to Martha and George's of Martha's hand on Nick's thigh, and similar effects,8 these shots do not appear in the final print. Even had they appeared, they would not have been equivalent to Martha's tempting of Nick in front of George, George's principle on stage sparagmos. Her taunting of George in this "Stocking Game," forcing him to play "Corner," is never heard nor seen. This major link in George's tragic pattern is missing. What remains is George calling from the front yard towards the upstairs bedroom windows "That's right: Go at it!",(177) the camera swinging up to reveal the shadow of Martha and Nick "going at it," providing suitable transition to sequence sixteen where, after panning the night sky, the camera reveals Martha, humiliated because Nick has failed in his attempted humping of the hostess.
The tragic pattern of George is broken, even though Martha still reveals that George is, after all, number one, for he was the only man in her life who ever made her happy.(189-190) George still teaches the other three the historical lesson, and emerges from sorrow to joy, but the pattern is no longer complete nor convincing.
Rhythmic elements may support the pattern that asserts George as the tragic hero, but not decisively. Though the various rounds of games are punctuated by tempo changes, other moments are punctuated even more noticeably, and tend to shift the emphasis from George to Martha, making it her tragedy.
It is, perhaps, a moot point as to whether or not Elizabeth Taylor has more "box office potential" than Richard Burton, but certainly a factor in determining which character is to be emphasized in a production is the appeal a star will have to the audience. The Elizabeth Taylor of Cinewoolf is hardly the Elizabeth Taylor of National Velvet nor the Elizabeth Taylor of Cat on a Hot Tin Roof. The beautiful Elizabeth Taylor of those movies took on extra weight and a wig to change her physical appearance for Cinewoolf.9 The audience that goes to Cinewoolf may or may not know that Elizabeth Taylor will not be seen as her beautiful self from earlier films. One must not be tempted here to discuss audience motivation, yet the presence of two stars remains a factor in consideration of Cinewoolf, and emphasis, where possible within the framework of the script, seems to point towards Elizabeth Taylor, whose performance won her an Oscar.
The first name that appears in the credits is that of Elizabeth Taylor. The first voice that is heard is that of Elizabeth Taylor as Martha laughing loudly.(3) The first character to be identified on the screen is Elizabeth Taylor, thrust into the foreground of the overexposure near the beginning of the second sequence. Her imitation of Bette Davis is first emphasized through the rhythm of the cutting, which is at its fastest during the first segment of this sequence. Abruptly the cutting is suspended for one hundred forty-seven seconds, but the pace is maintained in Martha's movement around the kitchen, miming her idea of Bette Davis. The camera moves to George's eye level, but not point-of-view. George is closer to the camera than Martha, yet only in mid-distance, so the effect of her standing, his sitting at the table is to place her over him visually, to present a visual dominance of her over George. Other angles include Martha close up, and George in the background, giving further emphasis to her position of dominance.
When George leaves the kitchen for the bar, the camera jumps with him, but Martha soon joins him and the camera frames her rather than him, following her upstairs, demonstrating her dominance over him again as she shuts the door in his face.
In sequence three, the conversation with the new guests gets started rather hesitantly. During the pregnant silences the camera focuses on Martha, as if waiting for her to get things going, and thereby emphasizing her dominance of the situation. Throughout this sequence and sequences four, five, and seven, the camera focuses on Martha and George in the same frame with Nick or Honey, sometimes both. This formal organization occurs often with Martha on the couch, Nick and Honey either side of her, though the frame generally includes only one or the other of the guests, and George at the bar or seated at his desk in the background. In this arrangement the couch is foreground, not mid distance, so the arrangement visually suggests the dominance of Martha over George.
The strongest point of rhythmic emphasis in this early third of Cinewoolf comes as Martha begins the story of the wartime physical fitness kick(55) and George leaves the room. The camera follows him out of the room, while the soundtrack continues Martha's narration, undiminished in volume so that it takes on a somewhat otherworld character in perspectlve to George's increasing physical distance from the living room. He enters the darkened woodshed, turns on the light much to the same glaring effect used at the beginning of sequence two, gets the "shotgun," and starts back to the living room. In a point-of-view shot the camera looks at the back of Martha's head as George approaches her. When Honey sees George, her reaction leads in to a series of close shots of the characters, in various combinations and singly, but of no more than a few seconds duration for the longest, until Martha demands a kiss as payoff, to begin sequence seven.
This quick succession of shots from various, but widely differing, camera positions and angles, produces an effect of visual chaos, as chaotic as the later visual chaos that erupts at the end of Humiliate the Host. In this instance, the victory by George is a Pyrrhic one, for Martha is momentarily upset and regains her composure under pressure, to try to get him to kiss her.(58-59) Prior to this sequence, Martha has been established as the motivating character in Cinewoolf by visual means of emphasis. In this sequence, number six, which contains the fastest paced editing of Cinewoolf to this point, the later upsetting of this established natural order is adumbrated in George's temporary challenge to that order. The result of visual chaos is a suitable image to the chaos that exists in the minds of the participating individuals whose world has been unexpectedly upset. This entire first third of Cinewoolf demonstrates visually that Martha is the dominant member of the foursome, with George as the underdog. However much sympathy this might generate for George, it does not present him as a tragic hero. When George says to Martha:
<I'm numbed enough so that I can take you when we're alone. I don't listen anymore . . . or if I do listen, I sift everything, so that I don't really hear you, which is about the only way to manage it. But you've taken a new tack, Martha, that is just too much . . . .(155)>
it does not seen that he is in control, as in Stagwoolf where the speech is longer, more elaborate, but rather that Martha is in control, and her new tack is challenging the established order.
The challenge is intentional. Martha's constant badgering of George is having its effect, and is forcing him to the point of turning on her, upsetting the current natural order, but therein returning their world to an even more natural order. As director Mike Nichols puts it; "One of the things contained in Virginia Woolf that I really believe is that the only thing a woman doesn't forgive in a man is letting her get on top." George long ago allowed Martha to "get on top,"10 and Martha shall keep pushing George until he turns on her and reestablishes that order which subconsciously she demands, but cannot publicly articulate.
In the station wagon on the way to the roadhouse, Martha again confronts George. When she notes that he "used to drink bergin, too,"(l23) his reaction is visualized as the squealing of the front tires of the auto, not by a close shot of his face. George is reaching the limit of his endurance of Martha's taunts, taunts that will lead inevitably to her reversal and recognition.
The climactic moment is Martha's revelation of the "truth" of George's novel, which fact she delivers from high above the others from the bandstand, towering visually, and symbolically, over everyone else present. Not only in terms of position, but in terms of facial expression, Martha demonstrates her triumph.
George's reaction is violent; "I will not tolerate this"(134) he says as he rises and moves to a confrontation with Martha, and as he says "I will not be made mock of!"(135) he looks down from the bandstand, towering over his former master, Martha. The moment might seem like the mouse turning on the cat, and frightening her because it is an unexpected turn, but George is shown as dead serious. There is little question that he has finally had all he can take from Martha, for at least this evening. When she insists on her point, Martha is physically attacked by George, and the montage of violent jumps of camera location and angle call attention to this as the turning point of the dramatic action. The tempo reaches its fastest pace here, and the content revealed within the frame is violent.
Now George's game of "Get the Guests" comes into focus not as a respite, but as his first attack in an effort to get back at Martha who has so completely dominated him. It is his effort to deny his previous submissiveness. George is now seen as on the attack. While the other three sit, he moves, pacing back and forth as he plays Get the Guests. At the end of the story, a two-shot reveals how accurate was his aim as Nick tries to console Honey. Then a one-shot shows George, triumphant, exultant in "And that's how you play Get the Guests."(148) The camera's ability to focus attention on specific detail now includes Martha in the frame as Nick and George argue. Martha, in the background, is seen saddened by George's attack on the guests. She is not yet belittled, but she is saddened, weary, exhausted by the activity of the night. For the first time in Cinewoolf, she is seen as no longer in control of the action. The big, loud Martha of the first half of Cinewoolf appears rather small, and quieted by the events.
Martha makes a desperate attempt to regain control, as the scene moves out into the darkness of the roadhouse parking lot. The natural order, of Martha on top and George the underdog, now reversed has produced an unnatural world. The parking lot sequence visually implies this in achieving the least realistic moments of Cinewoolf. Martha and George often appear against an unrealistic background obtained by placing common window screen over the 100 mm. lens, thus producing a starburst effect from the lights that lit the parking lot.11 For much of this sequence the montage is a series of medium and close one-shots on the speaker, the frame not allowing a view of the person who is reacting to the speaker until his reaction is verbalized. Even when one character has a long speech, that character is constantly pacing back and forth, so that the feeling of instability in this newly topsy-turvy world is maintained and extended. At the end of the sequence, Martha steps in to a close shot of George as he threatens that he'll beat her at her own game.(159) She does not believe he is man enough but accepts the reversal in the challenge of "Total war? Total!"(159)
Whereas in Oedipus Rex, Oedipus goes off stage after his reversal and recognition to return blinded after his sparagmos, both Martha and George remain on stage in Stagwoolf, Martha making George suffer as she leads Nick on to attempt adultery. By cutting pages 160-173 in their entirety, Ernest Lehman has altered the tragic pattern of Stagwoolf, removing George's principle sparagmos with Martha. Instead, in Cinewolf the transition is direct to Martha's suffering Humiliate the Hostess as Nick fails to Hump the Hostess off stage, while George seeks means to further his revenge in the front yard.
This short transition leads to the visible evidence of Martha's humiliation in sequence sixteen. Albee's comment that Martha is "left out in the cold like an old pussycat"(185) is not uttered by Martha in the film, but an equivalent image is presented when the camera pans down from its viewing of the late night sky to reveal her at a distance in the yard, alone, diminutive. Her loneliness is emphasized by the emptiness of the large yard around her. It is Martha who is presented as having lost all friends, and it is not Nick's failure to Hump the Hostess, but Martha's failure to cuckold the host, that becomes the significant fact. Martha is "alone," even when Nick joins her. She longs for George's return. She turns to look out into the yard for him, and is viewed through the kitchen screen door in a shot that, heightened by the interposition of the screen, dirtied by dead flies, brings home the full force of Martha's loneliness, exhaustion, and desire for an end to the games. Martha has already suffered, but she has not learned the lesson of her suffering.
George returns with Snapdragons. For a short time, Martha and George twice stand together against outside challenge. Nick challenges; "Hell, I don't know when you people are lying, or what."(200) The reaction is framed in a two-shot, as Martha and George are viewed, from Nick's point of view, standing resolutely together against his outside intrusion. Shortly thereafter, when George mentions his Mommy and Daddy's graduation present, Nick challenges; "Was this after you killed them?"(200) The shot that follows frames George in one half, and Martha rises from her chalr, where she was sitting outside the frame, into the frame beside him to stand united against outside intrusion again.
Martha has not learned her lesson, for when asked to tell George that Nick is in fact a stud, she lies, and says that Nick is not a houseboy. "So be it"(202) comments George, and he brings about the on stage sparagmos of Martha in the Bringing Up Baby sequence, sequence twenty. In a lengthy shot of two minutes duration, Martha tells the story; "Our son was born in a September night,"(217) "beautiful, beautiful boy."(221) Her struggle to reveal this intimate part of her past gains impact from the camera close-up, the view being much closer than would be possible in a stage situation. The visible strain of retelling the story, seen at such proximity, suggests the labor, or perhaps the exhaustion, induced by real childbirth. Even when the camera leaves Martha, to depict the reactions of Nick and Honey and George, it always quickly returns to her. Her suffering is always brought quickly back into view.
As George prepares to announce the death of their son to Martha, his new dominance over her is again asserted, more strongly than would be possible in similar stage circumstances. George and Martha are face to face, she on her knees, he standing. The impact of his dominance is increased by having the camera look over his shoulder down at her, and up over her shoulder at him towering above her. On the death pronouncement, "our son is dead,"(231) George is seen in a close shot. As he gives further emphasis to this announcement, Martha's reaction is shown in a one-shot on "killed."
Her first reaction is to protest violently, and Nick and George have to help her to the couch, where she sobs over the loss. George pronounces the final words to his Requiem mass, "Requiem aeternam dona eis, Domine,"(237) and to silence, broken only by Martha's sobbing, the camera frames one by one the participants in this exorcism; Martha, George, Nick, Honey. Then the view of the individuals is replaced by an ultra wide-angle view of the room with all the participants. This overall view holds until after Honey and Nick leave, and George admits to Martha that he, too, is tired. A medium distance shot bridges the action to the final shot of Cinewoolf, which begins at a distance from above, focusing on the two. As Martha admits that she is "afraid of Virginia Woolf,"(242) the camera moves forward to emphasize her outstretched hand clasping George's hand on her shoulder in acceptance of his offer to the future, that all will be better, and in acknowledgment of her need of his aid. If it was not apparent when the camera first viewed the entire room that the harsh night had dissolved into soft morning, it now becomes so as the camera, closing on Martha and George's clasped hands, moves over them to view, hazily, the morning sunlight through the window.
This morning light, which might be taken to symbolize the enlightenment of Martha in her need for George, is actually the outcome of a long and gradual change of the lighting from "a definitely stark character at the beginning of the film to a soft, diffused quality at the end."12 Not only does this light change denote the progressive changing of time from night to dawn, but it also emphasizes the psychological undercurrents of Cinewoolf. Director of Photography, Haskel Wexler, states; "The stage version of the play upset me greatly when I saw it because it seemed unrelenting and almost inhuman right up to the very end."13 Yet Cinewoolf "seems instead to indicate that there is some human compassion, some spark of warmth between these people that goes beyond the horrible games they play."14 Wexler "felt that a gradual softening of the light would help to establish the idea that they had reached the beginning of the end of this mad game they were playing."15 When George asserts that "It will be better,"(240) that out of this three hour Sunday morning nightmare has come knowledge, Wexler's soft lighting adds visual emphasis to the statement.
<. . . A1bee probably meant for Martha to be the soul of the entire drama . . . She has formulated the games, not George. She has planned the action and in the final round is brought by her husband to see that the game has been on her, as she knows it has been . . . . The games have all been on Martha; it has been her sustenance. George does not for this reason have to emerge or to shape a conflict. The conflict is obvious; it is all within the world of Martha. George in ending the game does not do this with vindictiveness. He comes through indestructible and Martha is destroyed for the moment, a pitiful shell without her illusions.>16
These words of Alan Wortman were written in support of his contention that "this film is a major accomplishment in the field of Hollywood dramas," and they clearly support the argument that Cinewoolf is the tragedy of Martha, while not necessarily detracting from Stagwoolf as the tragedy of George. The visual elements of Cinewoolf emphasize Martha's downfall, which pattern is aided by the elimination of the one scene that would deny Martha's role as heroine and assert George in the pattern as hero.(159-174)
A comparison of tragic patterns in Stagwoolf and Cinewoolf yields the following: Stagwoolf; agons,(3-137) principle reversal (with Martha),(138) secondary reversal (with guests),(150) recognition,(159) sparagmos with Martha,(160-174) on stage extension of sparagmos,(174-181) off stage sparagmos,(185-195) sparagmos with Nick and Martha(195-204) and epiphany(205-242)--Cinewoolf; agons,(3-17) principle reversal (with George,(138) sparagmos watching George Get the Guests,(138-150) recognition,(159) (CUT: 160-174), off stage sparagmos with Nick,(174-181) on stage sparagmos by self and with Nick,(185-195) on stage sparagmos with Nick and George, then with both guests and Gcorge, (195-238) and epiphany.(238-242)
Both Martha and George suffer deeply in both Stagwoolf, and Cinewoolf. The pattern of suffering in each is not the same, and it is this factor, emphasized by visual means that concur with dialogue cuts, that changes the tragedy of George to the tragedy of Martha.
1. This figure is based upon a counting of shots in a showing of Cinewoolf at Mt. Vernon, Kentucky January 6, 1968. At least a sample count was made in each sequence, and a total count was made for eighty per cent of the film running time.
2. Ralph Stephenson, and J. R. Debrix, The Cinema as Art (Baltimore, Md.: Penguin Books, 1965), p. 114.
3. Ibid.
4. Ivor Montagu, Film World (Baltimore, Md.: Penguin Books, 1964), p. 136.
5. Lewis Herman, A Practical Manual of Screen Plavwriting (Cleveland: World Publishing, 1952), p. 191
6. Herb A. Lightman, "The Dramatic Photography of 'Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?'," The American Cinematographer, XLVII (August, 1966), p. 558.
7. James Price, "Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?" Sight and Sound, XXXV (Autumn, 1966), p. 198.
8. Ernest Lehman, Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (Unpublished film script, Burbank, California: Warner Bros.- Seven Arts, 1965), pp. 113-114.
9. Cf. C. Robert Jennings, "All for the love of Mike," Saturday Evening Post, CCXXXVIII (October 9, 1965), p. 84.
10. "Playboy Interview: Mike Nichols," Playboy, XIII (June, 1966), p. 68.
11. Lightman, loc. cit.
12. Ibid., p. 533.
13. Ibid., Lightman is quoting Wexler.
14. Ibid., quoting Wexler.
15. Ibid., quoting Wexler.
16. Alan J. Wortman, "'Virginia Woolf' Debate Continues," Letter to the Editor, The New York Times (July 24 1966). p. 18 D.